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PREVENTING TRANSMISSION OF HIV INFECTION: UNDERSTANDING HOW HIV IS SPREAD: PRINCIPLES OF CONTAGION-SOURCES OF HIV AND TYPES OF CONTACT
A person with HIV infection is almost the sole source of this infection. The only time a person is not directly the source is in the laboratory, when a researcher has taken inadequate precautions and is infected while working with large numbers of the virus. Any person with HIV infection, regardless of symptoms, should be considered capable of transmitting the disease.
Types of Contact-The white blood cells that HIV infects, the CD4 cells, are found in differing numbers in different body fluids. As a result, the numbers of HIV also differ in different body fluids. The numbers of HIV are greatest in semen, breast milk, and blood, including menstrual blood. The numbers of HIV are fewer in women’s genital secretions. HIV is unlikely to be in saliva or tears, though it has been found in these fluids in a minority of people, and then only in very low numbers. HIV has not been found in urine or feces. In order to cause infection, HIV must travel from the body fluids of an infected person into the bloodstream of an uninfected person. The skin that covers the outside of the body is a formidable barrier. If the skin is intact, simple contact between HIV and the skin will not transmit HIV. The mucous membranes that cover most of the insides of the mouth, vagina, and rectum are also a barrier to the virus. But we are less certain whether mucous membranes are as formidable a barrier as skin.
If the skin or a mucous membrane is broken?if it has cuts or sores?the virus can get into the bloodstream. Thus, infected blood, menstrual blood, vaginal fluids, or semen on intact skin is almost invariably safe. But on skin or mucous membranes that have an open sore or a cut, the same fluids can possibly transmit the virus. Injecting large amounts of infected blood into the body?like a transfusion of blood from an infected person?is the most efficient method of transmission.
We can provide absolute assurance that most types of common contact carry no risk of transmitting the virus. These include a variety of experiences often referred to as “casual contact”: shaking hands, hugging, sharing a toilet, sharing eating utensils, closed-mouth kissing, being sneezed on, and so forth. Not only has infection through casual contact not happened, it is biologically unrealistic to suppose it might.
There are three primary types of contact that can result in transmission of HIV:
Sexual contact, that is, contact with infected genital secretions (semen, vaginal fluids, menstrual blood)
Injection of infected blood through transfusions or needle sharing
Pregnancy in an infected mother
Other kinds of contact more rarely result in transmission of HIV.
These are:
Breast-feeding by an infected mother (transmission to baby)
Breast-feeding by an infected baby (transmission to mother)
Organ transplantation using organs from infected donors
Artificial insemination from infected sperm donors
Needlestick injuries in health care professionals caring for infected people
Dental care and possibly surgical procedures done by infected health care workers
Whether oral sex, either cunnilingus (oral sex performed on a woman) or fellatio (oral sex performed on a man), transmits HIV infection is controversial. There are stories about HIV being transmitted through oral sex, but no studies confirm this.
The combined total for these rarer types of contact accounts for less than 0.1 percent, or less than one in a thousand, of the cases of AIDS.
We are sure about what kinds of contact do and do not transmit the virus. Over 160,000 people with AIDS have been studied by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). The types of contact listed above together account for 95 to 97 percent of all people with AIDS. When researchers went back and looked specifically at the people not accounted for by these types of contact, they found that most were problematic: many people acknowledged risks when questioned by a more experienced interviewer, some people were so seriously ill at the time of reporting that no reliable medical history could be obtained, and some never had HIV infection to begin with. By the time researchers were done, the type of contact responsible for transmission remained ambiguous in less than 1 percent of the people. Given the likelihood that people will lie about such sensitive issues as homosexuality and the use of illegal drugs, 1 percent is an incredibly low figure.
At the same time, it must be acknowledged that other types of contact, though unlikely to transmit HIV, might transmit HIV, at least in theory. HIV has been found in low numbers in saliva and tears. HIV has not been found in feces or urine. Although transmission through these fluids is biologically possible, it doesn’t seem to happen; the CDC, which tracks all cases of AIDS, has no case in which the only type of contact was clearly through saliva, feces, urine, or tears. Perhaps the inoculum size?the numbers of virus?in these fluids is simply too low. In any case, transmission of HIV through these types of contact is extremely inefficient and is not known to happen.
One type of contact that people worry about is mouth contact. HIV is found in low numbers in saliva, so deep kissing, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, biting, being spat upon, and the like might potentially transmit the virus. It is noteworthy that HIV is actually found in saliva in only about 1 or 2 percent of people with HIV infection. Moreover, even in these people, the numbers of the virus are so low that researchers believe that transmission through saliva is biologically improbable and perhaps impossible. Nevertheless, we periodically hear of a case where saliva is a suggested type of contact. As a result, contact through saliva remains a theoretical concern that cannot be excluded.
Another type of contact people worry about is indirect: becoming infected by a virus on a surface outside the body. To repeat, no one (except the rare laboratory worker using high concentrations of the virus) has ever become infected by the virus living on a surface outside the body. The reason is that HIV cannot survive outside its host cells, and outside the body, cells die quickly. When host cells die, HIV dies with them. Although HIV can survive outside the body on a surface for up to fifteen days, the numbers of viruses on a surface fall rapidly to levels well below those necessary for infection.
A third possibility that people worry about, probably because the news media have paid a lot of attention to it, is that insects, particularly mosquitoes, could conceivably transmit the virus. The argument is that insects transmit other microbes in the blood, such as malaria. But even in Africa, where mosquito-borne diseases like malaria are common, scientists have not been able to find a clear case in which HIV has been transmitted by a mosquito. AIDS in Africa is a disease found almost exclusively in babies and sexually active adults, especially those in cities. Mosquitoes, however, do not select out babies and sexually active adults in cities to bite; mosquitoes are everywhere and bite everyone.
Epidemiologic studies have been done specifically to study the possibility that HIV is spread by mosquitoes. These studies found that the areas in the United States with large populations of mosquitoes have no more cases of HIV infection than other areas; nor do they have more cases of HIV infection whose source of infection is unknown. Further studies in the laboratory show that mosquitoes cannot transmit HIV mechanically. The conclusion by most authorities in this field is that mosquitoes are not a source of HIV infection.
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